高分！求面包的起源、发展或者历史英文介绍

History of bread

The history of bread goes back at least 30,000 years. The first bread produced was probably cooked versions of a grain-paste, made from roasted and ground cereal grains and water, and may have been developed by accidental cooking or deliberate experimentation with water and grain flour. Descendants of this early bread are still commonly made from various grains in many parts of the world, including lavashs, taboons, sangaks, Mexican tortilla, Indian chapatis, rotis and naans, Scottish oatcake, North American johnnycake, Middle Eastern pita, and Ethiopian injera. Flat bread of these types also formed a staple in the diet of many early civilizations with the Sumerians eating a type of barley flat cake, and the 12th century BC Egyptians being able to purchase a flat bread called ta from stalls in the village streets.The ritual bread in ancient Greek offerings to the chthonic gods, known as psadista was made of fine flour, oil and wine.

Prehistory

The earliest archaeological evidence for flour, which was likely processed into an unleavened bread, dates to the Upper Palaeolithic in Europe, around 30,000 years ago.[3] During this period of human history cereals constituted just one of many food sources exploited by hunting and gathering;[4] palaeolithic European diets were based mainly on animal proteins and fats.[3] Cereals and bread became a staple food during the Neolithic, around 10,000 years ago, when wheat and barley were among the first plants to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. Wheat-based agriculture spread from Southwest Asia to Europe, North Africa and the Indian Subcontinent. In other parts of the world cereals such as rice (East Asia), maize (the Americas) and sorghum (sub-Saharan Africa), which are also sometimes made into bread, were independently domesticated and formed the basis of alternative agricultural systems.[5] Around the world, the shift from varied hunter-gatherer subsistence to agricultural diets based predominantly on a cereal staple such as wheat bread marked an important turning point in human history. Though in many ways nutritionally deficient compared to hunting and gathering, cereal crops allowed agricultural societies to sustain much larger populations than had previously been possible, which in turn led to greater economic specialisation, social complexity and eventually the rise of civilised states.[6]

The development of leavened bread can also probably be traced to prehistoric times. Yeast spores occur everywhere, including the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest will become naturally leavened.[7] Although leavening is likely of prehistoric origin, the earliest archaeological evidence is from ancient Egypt. Scanning electron microscopy has detected yeast cells in some ancient Egyptian loaves. However, ancient Egyptian bread was made from emmer wheat and has a dense crumb. In cases where yeast cells are not visible, it is difficult, by visual examination, to determine whether the bread was leavened. As a result, the extent to which bread was leavened in ancient Egypt remains uncertain.[8]

The importance of bread in the formation of early human societies cannot be overstated. From the western half of Asia, where wheat was domesticated, cultivation spread north and west, to Europe and North Africa, and enabled humans to become farmers rather than hunters and foragers. This in turn led to the formation of towns, as opposed to the nomadic lifestyle, and gave rise to more and more sophisticated forms of societal organization. Similar developments occurred in easterm Asia, centered on rice, and in the Americas with maize.

[edit] Antiquity

There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread. Airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce "a lighter kind of bread than other peoples." Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape must and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast. The most common source of leavening however was to retain a piece of dough from the previous day to utilize as a form of sourdough starter.[9]

The idea of a free-standing oven that could be pre-heated, with a door for access, appears to have been a Greek one.[10]

Even in antiquity there were a wide variety of breads. In ancient times the Greek bread was barley bread: Solon declared that wheaten bread might only be baked for feast days. By the 5th century bread could be purchased in Athens from a baker's shop, and in Rome, Greek bakers appeared in the 2nd century BC, as Hellenized Asia Minor was added to Roman dominion as the province of Asia;[11] the foreign bakers of bread were permitted to form a collegium In the Deipnosophistae, the author Athenaeus (c.A.D.170-c. 230) describes some of the bread, cakes, cookies, and pastries available in the Classical world.[12] Among the breads mentioned are griddle cakes, honey-and-oil bread, mushroom-shaped loaves covered in poppy seeds, and the military specialty of rolls baked on a spit. The type and quality of flours used to produce bread could also vary, as noted by Diphilus when he declared "bread made of wheat, as compared with that made of barley, is more nourishing, more digestible, and in every way superior." In order of merit, the bread made from refined [thoroughly sieved] flour comes first, after that bread from ordinary wheat, and then the unbolted, made of flour that has not been sifted."[13] The essentiality of bread in the diet was reflected in the name for the rest of the meal: ópson, "condiment", i.e. bread's accompaniment, whatever it might be.[14]

[edit] Middle Ages

Peasants sharing bread, from the Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio, France, 14th century. (Bibliothèque nationale)

In medieval Europe, bread served not only as a staple food but also as part of the table service. In the standard table setting of the day the trencher, a piece of stale bread roughly 6 inches by 4 inches (15 cm by 10 cm), served as an absorbent plate. At the completion of a meal the trencher could then be eaten, given to the poor, or fed to the dogs. It was not until the 15th century that trenchers made of wood started to replace the bread variety.[15]

[edit] Modern era

The industrialization of bread-baking was a formative step in the creation of the modern world.[16] Otto Frederick Rohwedder is considered to be the father of sliced bread. In 1912 Rohwedder started work on inventing a machine that sliced bread, but bakeries were reluctant to use it since they were concerned the sliced bread would go stale. It was not until 1928, when Rohwedder invented a machine that both sliced and wrapped the bread, that sliced bread caught on. A bakery in Chillicothe, Missouri was the first to use this machine to produce sliced bread.

For generations, white bread was the preferred bread of the rich while the poor ate dark (whole grain) bread. However, in most western societies, the connotations reversed in the late 20th century, with whole grain bread becoming preferred as having superior nutritional value while white bread became associated with lower-class ignorance of nutrition.[17]

Another major advance happened in 1961 with the development of the Chorleywood Bread Process which used the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf. The process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of inferior grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories. In total contrast, traditional breadmaking as seen for example in French bakery, is extremely time-consuming, as the dough is mixed with yeast and requires several cycles of kneading and resting in order to become ready for baking, and to produce the desired flavor and texture.

More recently, and especially in smaller retail bakeries, chemical additives are used that both speed up mixing time and reduce necessary fermentation time, so that a batch of bread may be mixed, made up, risen, and baked in less than 3 hours. Dough that does not require fermentation because of chemical additives is called "no-time bread" by commercial bakers. Common additives include reducing agents such as L-cysteine or sodium metabisulfite, and oxidants such as potassium bromate or ascorbic acid.[18] Often these chemicals are added to dough in the form of a prepackaged base, which also contains most or all of the dough's non-flour ingredients. Using such bases and sophisticated chemistry, it has been possible for commercial bakers to make imitations of artisan and sourdough breads, traditionally made by semi-skilled labor working in smaller shops.

Recently, domestic breadmakers that automate the process of making bread have become popular in the home.

面包的历史

历史的面包，至少可以追溯到30,000年。 第一个面包生产的可能熟的粮食粘贴版本，从烤和地面谷物和水制成，并可能已被偶然烹煮或面粉加水和粮食蓄意试验发展。 这种早期面包后裔仍普遍制成各种谷物在世界许多地区，包括lavashs ， taboons ， sangaks ， 墨西哥的 玉米饼 ， 印度 chapatis ， rotis和naans ， 苏格兰 燕麦饼 ， 北美 乔尼凯克 ， 中东 皮塔和埃塞俄比亚 injera 。 类型单位的面包这些也形成了以主食在许多早期文明的饮食苏美尔人吃了蛋糕型大麦基本持平，而公元前12世纪埃及人能够购买面包名为街一个单位，从摊位达村在。 [ 1]在仪式面包古希腊供养的闪灵神，psadista被称为是用细面，油，酒。 [2]

史前史

最早的考古证据，面粉，这很可能是未经发酵加工成面包，可追溯至旧石器时代晚期在欧洲 ，大约3万年前。 [3]在此期间，谷物构成人类历史是许多刚刚利用采购食物和狩猎聚会 ; [4]欧洲旧石器时代的饮食主要是基于对动物蛋白质和脂肪。 [3]谷物和面包成了主食 ，在新石器时代 ，约1万年前，当小麦和大麦植株中第一个被驯化的新月沃土 。 小麦为主，西南地区农业蔓延到欧洲，北美，非洲和印度次大陆。 在世界其他地区的谷物，如大米 （东亚）， 玉米 （美洲）和高粱 （撒哈拉以南非洲），这有时也被制成面包，独立地驯化，形成了系统的基础替代农业。 [ 5]在世界各地，从不同的生活转变狩猎采集到农业在人类历史上一个主要的饲料谷物，如小麦主食面包标记点的一个重要转折点。 虽然在许多方面营养的缺乏相比，狩猎和采集社会谷类作物让农业人口较多，以维持更比原先可能，从而带来更大的经济专业化 ， 社会的复杂性 ，最终的兴起， 文明的国家 。 [6]

酵的面包的发展也很可能可以追溯到史前时代。 酵母孢子发生无处不在，包括颗粒表面的谷物，所以任何面团左其余部分将成为自然发酵。 [7]虽然膨松可能是史前的起源，最早的考古证据是从古代埃及。 扫描电子显微镜检测到埃及的面包酵母细胞在一些古老的。 然而，古埃及的面包是从二粒小麦，具有致密碎屑。 在情况下， 酵母细胞中不可见，它是困难的，通过视觉检查，以确定是否酵饼。 因此，在何种程度上是古代酵面包在埃及仍然不明朗。 [8]

面包的在早期人类社会形成的重要性怎么强调也不过分。 从亚洲，其中小麦被驯化，栽培北部和西部蔓延，西半部到欧洲和北非，以及使人类能够成为猎人和觅食，而不是农民。 这反过来又导致了城镇的形成，相对于游牧的生活方式，产生了复杂的形式的社会组织越来越多。 类似的发展发生在中下游地区，集中在大米 ，并在美洲的玉米 。

古代

有早期的发酵面包可供多个来源。 酵母菌可以开发利用机载留生面团暴露在空气中一段时间才能烹调。 老普林尼报道， 高卢和伊比利亚用于生产啤酒的泡沫撇去了“一人轻于其他种面包。” 各部件的古代世界，喝葡萄酒而不是啤酒贴组成一个用葡萄汁和面粉被允许开始发酵，或麦麸沉浸在酒酵母，作为一个来源。 但是，大部分的膨松普遍的来源是要保留天前的一块面团利用作为一种形式酵母 启动 。 [9]的，理想中的独立的烤箱可预先加热，门上一个Access似乎已经是一个希腊之一。 [10]

即使在古代有各种各样的面包。 在古代希腊的大麦面包，面包是： 梭伦宣布小麦面包烘烤可能只有几天的盛宴。 到了公元5世纪面包可以购买在雅典一家面包店店，并在罗马，希腊的面包师出现在公元前2世纪，作为希腊化小亚细亚加入统治的罗马亚省 ; [11]面包师的外国面包被允许形成collegium在Deipnosophistae ，笔者阿特纳奥斯 （cAD170-c. 230）描述了一些面包，蛋糕，饼干和糕点在世界上现有的经典。 [12]其中提到面包的烤盘蛋糕，蜂蜜和油面包，**种子覆盖蘑菇形饼，卷上的烤吐军事专业。 不同的类型和质量也用于生产面包粉可以，所指出的Diphilus当他宣布“小麦制成的面包，作为比较，提出，与大麦 ，现在是，在各方面都优于更滋润，更易消化。“ 在勋章的，面包制成的面粉精制[彻底过筛]至上，在这之后，从普通小麦面包，然后拔去门闩的，面粉制成的尚未过筛。“ [13]饮食中的面包的必要性反映在餐名称为其余的：ópson，“调味品”，即面包的伴奏，无论它可能是。 [14]

中世纪

农民分享面包，从作案的投资回报率等利夫雷杜赖因德拉比 ，法国，14世纪。 （ 国家图书馆 ）

在中世纪的欧洲 ，面包担任不仅作为主食 ，而且作为服务的一部分表。 在标准表日成立了的挖沟机 ，一块干面包大约6英寸，4英寸（15厘米10厘米）板吸收，担任过。 在一餐完成挖沟机便可以吃，给穷人，或喂养的狗。 但直到15世纪的木材制成的挖沟机开始取代面包品种。 [15]

现代时代

烘烤的面包工业化，是一个世界。逐步形成的现代创作中[16] 奥托冯Rohwedder被认为是对父亲的切片面包 。 1912年Rohwedder开始发明一种机器，切片面包的工作，但面包房不愿意使用它，因为他们关注的切片面包会去陈旧。 直到1928年，Rohwedder发明了这两个切片和包装的面包，这面包切片机上捕获。 阿奇利科西面包店，密苏里州是第一个使用这种机器生产切片面包。

世世代代，白面包是首选的丰富而穷人吃面包黑（全麦）面包。 然而，在大多数西方社会的内涵扭转了20世纪后期面包，全麦成为首选，因为具有优良的营养价值，同时成为白面包营养与较低的阶层的无知。 [17]

另一项重大进展与发生在1961年的发展过程乔利伍德面包的面团用激烈的机械加工，大大降低了发酵周期和面包所需的时间来生产。 这个过程中，其高能量的混合使用使劣质粮食，现已广泛周围的世界大工厂使用。 在完全相反，传统的面包看在法国面包店的例子，是非常耗时，因为面团混合酵母和揉和休息需要几个周期才能成为准备烘烤，并产生预期的味道和纹理。

最近，特别是在较小的零售面包店， 化学添加剂，使用这两个时间加快，减少必要的混合发酵时间，从而使面包，可混批，分项，上升，几小时烤小于3。 面团，不需要因为被称为“无时间的面包”，由商业贝克斯化学添加剂发酵。 常见的添加剂包括：减少代理商等为L -半胱氨酸或焦亚硫酸钠 ，并作为氧化剂如溴酸钾或抗坏血酸 。 [18]通常，这些化学物质添加到面团中的基本形式预先包装，其中还包含大部分或所有的面团的非面粉成分。 使用这样的基地和先进的化学，它有可能为商业贝克斯使传统上由半熟练劳动力在小商店工作的工匠和酵母制成面包，模仿。

近日，国内面包机过程的自动化，面包制作已成为热门的家。

Yummy

Bakery

(Yummy 好吃、美味的意思，Bakery面包坊）

或者

Handy Lady

Bakery

(

Handy 巧匠，Lady

女士、妇人。全称可译作

巧妇面包坊

）

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